History of Southwest Asia
1. The Fertile Crescent and Mesopotamia (between the Tigris and Euphrates
Rivers) is one of the major sites for the domestication of animals and
plants. This region had a climate diversity and major climatic changes
which encouraged the evolution of many annual plants which produce more
edible seeds than some perennial plants, and the region's dramatic variety
of elevation gave rise to many species of edible plants for early experiments
in cultivation. Most importantly, it possessed eight of the Neolithic
founder crops important in early agriculture (i.e. wild progenitors to
emmer wheat, einkorn, barley, flax, chick pea, pea, lentil, bitter vetch),
and four of the five most important species of domesticated animals —
cows, goats, sheep, and pigs — and the fifth species, the horse,
lived nearby.
2. This area of the world is, therefore, the site of early civilizations
(Sumeria, Babylonia, Assyria, Chaldea, Persia). This area was part of
Alexander the Great’s Persian Empire and was controlled, at one
time, by the Mongols.
3. The Hittites developed iron weapons here during the 14th century B.C.
4. Urban centers, also, developed. By the 3rd millennium BC, these urban
centers had developed into increasingly complex societies. Irrigation
and other means of exploiting food sources were being used to amass large
surpluses, huge building projects were being undertaken by rulers, and
political organization was becoming evermore sophisticated. It is during
this period that the potter's wheel was developed into the vehicular-
and mill wheel. By 2600 BC, the logographic script had developed into
a decipherable form of writing.
5. Many of the people of the Arabian Peninsula were nomads/Bedouins who
adapted to the harsh conditions of the desert and built a culture based
on strong family ties.
6. Many different belief systems have developed in this area. Judaism
(1300 B.C.), Christianity (1A.D.), and Islam (622 A.D.) are monotheistic
religions that continue in use today.
7. Roman Empire controlled Judea, by 31 B.C.; Jews rebelled against the
Romans.
8. Jews fail to hold the fortress of Masada against the Romans in 73 A.D.
9. The defeated Jews fled the area (diaspora – the movement of a
cohesive group, ethnic, religious, or racial, out of an area).
10. Islam is a religion based on the teachings of its founder, the Prophet
Muhammad, who lived part of his life in Mecca. The nomads of the Arabian
Peninsula, the Beduoin, were among the first converts to Islam. They were
already spreading the faith by the time of Muhammed’s death in A.D.
632. Arabic language and Islamic teachings and culture spread across Southwest
Asia.
11. By the Middle Ages, a large area of the world was controlled by Muslim
empires. The governments of lands controlled by Muslims were theocratic
where religious leaders controlled the government. Rulers relied on religious
law and consulted with religious scholars on running the country. Arabs
remained the dominant elite as Islam spread, but they placed local non-Arabs
and non-Muslims as administrators of newly taken territory. Thus, they
allowed local rule but collected taxes that supported the empire. They
were tolerant of Jews, Christians, and other monotheists.
12. While Europe languished in the medieval period (A.D. 450-1400), Muslim
scholars traveled extensively throughout Asia and Africa gathering information.
They made important contributions in the field of history, mathematics,
geography, medicine, and other academic disciplines, and also preserved
many writings in their libraries.
13. By the tenth century, people throughout the Arab-Islamic empire’s
former territories had gradually converted to Islam and many adopted the
Arabic language. But then the Arab-Islamic empire began to break apart
into smaller units as outlying provinces, often ruled by a local Islamic
dynasty, eluded the control of central authorities.
14. From the 11th to the 15th centuries, Mongols from eastern Central
Asia and other peoples conquered parts of Muslim territory.
15. By the fifteenth century, the Ottoman Muslims defeated the Christian
Byzantine Empire and took over its capital, Constantinople, which they
renamed Istanbul. The Ottoman Turks expanded their empire to Egypt, in
Africa, and into Austria, in Europe.
16. By 1492, the Spanish forced the Muslims/Moors to leave Spain or convert
to Roman Catholicism.
17. Throughout the 19th century, North African lands began to change from
Ottoman to European control. At first, European influence was exercised
primarily through control of trade and finance. North Africa became a
source of raw materials for Europe in a trading relationship dominated
by European merchants, who sought the agricultural products—the
cotton of Egypt, and the phosphates, manganese, hides, and wool of the
western Mediterranean countries. Britain also wanted to control Egypt
to protect the Suez Canal completed in 1869.
18. In 1830, France became the first European country to exercise direct
control of a North African territory when its military gained control
of Algeria. France eventually administered Algeria almost as though it
were a part of France—although Muslims were not allowed the benefits
of full citizenship.
19. In the late 1800s, France, Britain, and Italy raced to occupy several
other North African countries, motivated in part by European power politics—the
fear that a rival would step in first. In these colonies, Europeans set
up a form of dependence that they termed a “protectorate”
where local rulers remained in place, but European officials made the
important decisions.
20. Both during the 1800s and the 1900s, Europeans interfered with the
idea of tribal land ownership. These traditional and more egalitarian
(equal) systems of landownership were done away with. European officials
privatized tribal collective lands and gave title to just the tribal leader
in return for their political support. Thus, European domination disempowered
the many and encouraged the concentration of wealth and power in the hands
of a few. This income gap continues today.
21. During WWI, the Ottomans allied with Germany and the Central Powers.
After the war ended, the League of Nations allotted almost all former
Ottoman territories at the eastern end of the Mediterranean to France
and Britain for supervision. Only Turkey was recognized as an independent
country. Palestine and Iraq (Jordan was created from a piece of Iraq)
were under the control of Britain.
22. The British establish Iraq as a monarchy in 1921 and placed on the
throne the former King of Syria (who had been expelled by the French),
King Faisal I of the Hashemite family.
23. In 1917, in response to Zionist pleas, the British government issued
the Balfour Declaration, which committed Britain to support the establishment
of “a national home for the Jewish people” in Palestine, but
only if the civil and religious rights of non-Jewish communities in Palestine
could be assured.
24. The Arabs were upset because the Balfour Declaration was a breach
of previous agreements that the British had with Arab leaders which had
assured them of independent control over Arab lands. This breach is still
cited as cause for distrusting the West.
25. A massacre of Jews by Arabs in 1929 resulted in the death of 133 Jews.
26. The British granted Iraq its independence in 1932 with the death of
King Faisal. A series of military dictators followed.
27. In 1939, the British introduced the White Paper of 1939, which limited
Jewish immigration to Palestine, over the course of the war, to 75,000
and restricted purchase of land by Jews.
28. The British took over the administration of Iraq again from 1941-1947.
They feared that they would lose access to Iraqi oil. The British put
the Hashemites back on the throne. The Hashemites would rule Iraq until
1958.
29. World War II led to further developments. As the U.S. gained status
as a world power and to counter communism, it supported autocratic local
leaders who were most sympathetic to U.S. policies (as opposed to USSR
policies) and most likely to maintain a friendly attitude toward U.S.
business interests. In Iran and Saudi Arabia, where vast oil deposits
became especially lucrative by mid-century, European and U.S. oil companies
played a key role in deciding who ruled. Oil profits were undertaxed and
most of the profits were gathered by a small elite and spent on opulent
living or invested abroad. Although some oil revenue went toward building
roads, hospitals, and schools—facilities that had not previously
existed—too little was invested in opening up opportunities for
the masses. The region remained dependent on Europe and North America
for the technology needed to exploit oil and begin the mechanization of
manufacturing, transportation, and agriculture. During this period, the
disparity in wealth between the elite and the majority of the people increased
dramatically.
30. Because of the Holocaust, in 1947, the United Nations voted to recommend
a partition plan that would divide the area of Palestine between Jews
and Arabs with Jerusalem internationalized. The world wanted to repay
the Jews by giving them some of their homeland back.
31. Following increasing levels of violence from Arab/Muslim groups, uncontrollable
immigration from Europe and general war-weariness, the British government
decided to withdraw from Palestine.
32. When the British left the area in 1948, Jewish leaders immediately
created a Jewish state.
33. The Palestinians and their Arab neighbors had never accepted the U.N.’s
decision. Egypt, Syria, and Jordan made war on the new state of Israel.
34. The West supplied arms to only one side: Israel. Israel won the war
in 1948.
35. After the war, the Israelis evicted many Palestinians from their land
36. Many Palestinians fled Palestine creating pockets of refugees in neighboring
countries.
37. In 1956, Egypt sealed the Suez Canal to Israeli shipping
38. In 1956, Israel invaded the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula.
39. Israel was persuaded by the major powers to evacuate the Sinai Peninsula
(part of Egypt)
40. In 1958, the military took over control of Iraq and a series of dictators
follow
41. In 1959, the Socialist Ba’athist Party took over control of
Iraq—the minority Sunnis ruled.
42. In 1960, OPEC is formed (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries)
as a cartel to control production and, therefore, the price of oil
43. In 1960, the Republic of Cyprus was formed with a Greek ethnicity
44. In 1964, Turkey attacked and now controls half of the island. The
U.N. patrols the dividing line between the two factions (Green Line).
The Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus is not recognized as a state.
45. In 1964, the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) formed to destroy
the State of Israel, return to Palestine, and be allowed to govern themselves
within Israeli held territory. Yasser Arafat was their leader from 1969
until 2004.
46. Six Day War
a. In May of 1967, President Nasser of Egypt demanded that the UN remove
their forces from the Sinai Peninsula. Egypt then closed Israel’s
access to the Gulf of Aqaba and, therefore, cut off Israeli shipping.
b. On June 5, 1967, Israel bombs and destroys the Egyptian, Jordanian,
Iraqi, and Syrian Air Forces.
c. The U.S. was deeply involved in the Vietnam War and other Western nations
were hesitant to get involved because of the need for Arab oil.
d. President Nasser, of Egypt, sank ships to make the Suez Canal inoperable.
e. Israeli troops moved into the Sinai Peninsula, Golan Heights, West
Bank, and Jerusalem.
f. Nasser falsely claimed that the U.S. and British had destroyed his
air force.
g. results:
i. Israeli occupation of Arab national territory
ii. Creation of fully developed and fanatic Palestinian nationalism
iii. Allowed the Israelis to feel that they could ignore the military
threats of the Arabs
iv. Drove the moderate Arab states into a strictly anti-Israeli alignment
v. Israel now had complete control of Jerusalem, a city holy to 3 religions
47. Between 1968 and 1972, a period known as the War of Attrition, numerous
scuffles erupted along the border between Israel and Syria and Egypt.
Furthermore, in the early-1970s, Palestinian groups embarked on an unprecedented
wave of attacks against Israel and Jewish targets in other countries.
a. The climax of this wave occurred at the 1972 Munich Olympic Games,
when, in the Munich massacre, Palestinian militants (Black September)
held hostage and killed members of the Israeli delegation.
b. Israel responded with Operation Wrath of God, in which agents of Mossad
assassinated most of those who were involved in the Munich massacre.
c. Finally, on October 6, 1973, on the Jewish fast day of Yom Kippur,
the Egyptian and Syrian armies launched a surprise attack against Israel.
However, despite early successes against an unprepared Israeli army, Egypt
and Syria failed to accomplish their goal of regaining the territories
lost in 1967. Yet after the war, a number of years of relative calm ensued,
which fostered the environment in which Israel and Egypt could make peace.
48. In 1973 and 1974, the Arab nations decided to punish the U.S. for
its support of Israel cutting the supply of oil (prices rose and shortages
occurred in the U.S.) through OPEC.
49. USSR threatened to intervene in the Middle East and the US, to avoid
a nuclear confrontation, helped broker peace. Henry Kissinger, U.S. Secretary
of State, met with President Sadat, of Egypt, on November 7, 1973, on
January 18, 1974 and again on March 18, 1974 to reestablish relations
that had been broken since 1967; arrange for an exchange of Jewish and
Arab prisoners; provide for a mutual disengagement; set up a U.N. buffer
force near the Suez; lifted the oil embargo; and set boundaries.
50. In 1977 and 1979, former U.S. President, Jimmy Carter, met with Sadat
and Menachim Begin, Prime Minister of Israel, and Egypt agreed to recognize
Israel as a country (Camp David Accords), and settle peace agreements.
The treaty did not address Jewish settlers in the West Bank and Golan
Heights, but did require the withdrawal of the Israelis from the Sinai.
51. In 1979, Saddam Hussein became president of the Ba’athist controlled
Iraq.
52. In 1979, the secular leader of Iran was ousted by the Islamists and
the Ayatollah Khomeini took over and began instituting sharia. Anyone
opposing the new theocratic state was imprisoned or executed. Women who
had had freedom under the secular state were once again restricted. This
fundamentalist attitude is seen as a way to counter the unwelcome effects
of Western influence.
53. In 1979, Russia invaded Afghanistan fearing that the religious revolution
in Iran would spread to the Central Asian states in the USSR.
54. In 1979, the US CIA began training mujahadeen (anti-Soviet forces)
to help keep Afghanistan from becoming communist.
55. In 1981, Egyptian President Sadat was assassinated by Egyptian terrorists
who did not want peace with Israel.
56. 1982, PLO sets up housekeeping in Lebanon
57. 1987, First Intifada – uprising against Israel
58. 1980-1988 – Saddam Hussein attacked Iran to gain access to more
land on the Persian Gulf. The prolonged war hurt both countries’
economy and infrastructure. The war had 4 dimensions:
a. ethnic – Arab vs. Persian
b. political - secular vs. theocratic
c. religious – Sunni vs. Shiite
d. economic – control of oil
59. The US aided Iraq during the Iran/Iraq War. From 1983-1990, the US
send $5 billion in aid to Iraq.
60. In 1989, the Soviets will finally withdraw from Afghanistan.
61. In 1990, Suddam Hussein invaded Kuwait. The Persian Gulf War led to
the freeing of Kuwait. Economic sanctions were put in place on Iraq pending
Hussein allowing weapons inspections. Hussein never fully allowed inspections.
62. The Taliban takes over control of Afghanistan in 1993. Imposing strict
rules.
63. In 1993, the Israeli Prime Minister, Rabin, and Yasir Arafat, leader
of the PLO, signed a historic peace treaty call the Oslo Accords. Palestinians
were granted self-rule in the Gaza Strip and parts of the West Bank. Jewish
settlers in these areas felt betrayed.
64. The Palestinians continued to hope for a Palestinian state. In 1996,
Palestinian terrorists (Hamas) bombed Jerusalem and Tel Aviv, killing
innocent Jewish civilians.
65. In return, the government of Israel bombed Palestinian refugee camps
in Lebanon. Many innocent civilians were killed. Israel refused to withdraw
troops from the West Bank and refused to discuss the creation of a Palestinian
state.
66. In September 2000, the Second Intifada , with terrorism and suicide
bombings, began to force Israel to talk about creating a Palestinian state.
67. Barak, Prime Minister of Israel, and Yassir Arafat, leader of the
PLO, once again conducted negotiations with President Clinton at the July
2000 Camp David summit. However, the talks failed.
68. In 2001, al Qaeda operatives bombed several sites in the US. As a
result, the US invaded Afghanistan to find the al Qaeda leaders and remove
the Taliban from power because of their support of the terrorists. A democratic
government was put in place.
69. In 2003, the US then invaded Iraq with the idea of capturing Hussein’s
WMDs and removing Hussein from a position of being able to support terrorists.
70. In 2004, Yasser Arafat died.
71. In 2005, the Israelis evacuated the Gaza Strip and allowed Palestinians
to take complete control; negotiations are going forward regarding the
West Bank.
72. The 2006 Palestinian election resulted in Hamas candidates becoming
the majority in the Palestinian government
73. The 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict refers to the military conflict in
Lebanon and northern Israel, primarily between Hezbollah and Israel, which
started on the 12th of July. The conflict began with cross-border Hezbollah
raid and shelling, which resulted in the capture of two and killing of
three Israeli soldiers. Israel held the Lebanese government responsible
for the attack, as it was carried out from Lebanese territory, and initiated
an air and naval blockade, airstrikes across much of the country, and
ground incursions into southern Lebanon.
74. A ceasefire came into effect on the 14th of August, although violations
of the ceasefire occurred on both sides. The conflict killed over 1000
Lebanese civilians, 440 Hezbollah militants, and 119 Israeli soldiers,
as well as, 44 Israeli civilians and caused massive damage to the civilian
infrastructure and cities of Lebanon and damaged thousands of buildings
across northern Israel, many of which were completely destroyed
75. In 2006, the US suspended aide ($) to Palestinian government which
was led by the fundamentalist Hamas faction.
76. In 2007, peace talks were held in the U.S.
Back to the Top
|